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TORONTO MLA 2026
«Henri Meschonnic: ‘Dans nos recommencements…’»
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
1
Elucidation/R
ev
elation
Par
t I
With the benefit of hinds
ight (after all, we are
in 2026!), it seems possible
to affirm that
the last thirty glorious years of the 20th century were marked, in Fran
ce, by three major lin
es
d
omin
atin
g the th
eory of
p
oetics.
Intellectually, it is probably more economical to associate each of
these th
ree lines with
an emblematic
tutelary figure, all three c
haracteri
zed by the fact that they left us
both a body
of
theoretical reflection and an abundant p
oetic praxis.
First, I mention the work of Yves Bonnefoy. As Prof
essor of Poetics at the Collège de
France, his social, professional, and commercial influence was considerable. Alth
ou
gh
he was a
discreet figure, worldly self
-effacing and without a great all-consuming passion for public
exhibitionism, his profound influence on
the poetic and literary world
of
the end of
the century
is undeniable. Placed in the line of a conservative,
traditional and literary poetics which
originates in the modernity of Mallarmé, then René Char, and continues today, perh
aps in the
work of Dominique Fourcad
e, Bonn
efoy's poetics is largely b
ased on
systematically versified
rhythm, rhetoric
and all linguistic work of figuration (comparison, metaphor, metonymy, and
other types of tropes’ construction). A poetics therefore based in large par
t on the indirect
expression of a semantic analogy; this
principle, as we know, is widely pres
ent as a m
ode of
composition in the entire French poetic tradition, starting, at least sin
ce the Romantic p
eriod
,
with an overwhelming domination
.
Jacques Roubaud disallo
ws this literary poetics that subordinates
everything to the
primacy of the symbol and, in line with the linguistic works of Saussure, R
oman Jakobson, Noam
Chomsky, favors a poetics of the sign that rejects the paraphrase elucidation of figu
res and calls
for a logical and hermeneutic interpretation. Where Bonnefoy's poetry lead
s to an
end in
an
artistic universe of its own (the "intra
nsitivity" of t
he symbol
according to T
zvetan Todorov),
Roubaud's poetics, widely dissemin
ated both th
rough
h
is poetic activity as a member of
the
Oulipo and his polemical theoretical writings in the journal
Change, r
esu
lt in an exp
ressiven
ess
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
2
of reality that does
not refuse the ra
tional elaboration of "scientific" observations. This
"rigor"
of the sign is accompanied in Roubaud by a metrical rigidity that earn
ed him the nickn
ame "Th
e
Metronome." However, his is not a roma
ntic respect for the expected s
pa
tial versification and
therefore the sim
ply "composed"
visual aspect of a traditional
po
em, but more firmly, he favors
an enthusiastic respect for the fixed underlying required number of poetic "pieds " [syllables
] in
the French poetic versification system. Hence his interest in any form of formal poem b
ased on
a tight rhythmic numeric system of syllables or other system of strict timing distribution: h
aiku
,
sonnet, rondeau and any other form of traditional
sacred liturgical poem with lines of 6 or 8
syllables)
.
Thir
d, I must list Henri Meschonnic who is inspired by the research and fundamental
considerations put forward by the F
ormalism movement of the Prag
ue and Moscow Schools, to
which he had direct access through his practice of the Russian langu
age. At th
e end
of th
e
1960s,
he began a long
a
nd patient work of poetic reflection popularized by a series of volumes
generally collected under the name Pour la poéti
que… When he became the director of
my
Master's thesis at the University of Lille, he indicated that his main inspira
tion for his
teaching of
Poetics came from a daily familiarity with th
e anth
ropological lin
guistic works of
Wilhelm von
Humboldt and the post
-Saussurean criticism against the “tyranny” of “le signe” recently
developed by Émile Benv
eniste. Appointed to the position of Assistant Professor at the
University of Paris-8 in June 1968,
he first sha
red the direction of a doctora
l
seminar in poetics
with Tzvetan Todorov. Then in June 1969, Todorov, having accepted a f
u
ll-time p
osition as a
researcher at the CNRS, Meschonnic was given the d
ir
ection of
the poetics semin
ar at P
aris-8
which, coupled with his editorial responsibilities at the publisher Gallimard, allowed h
im to
solidify his
personal and professional
reputation as an important fig
ure in F
rench poetic
theory
at the end of the 20th century. The operational concept of "rhythm" is definitively attached
to
Meschonnic's theoretical
position on the nature of poetics considered as a social and
intellectual manifestation of
our contemp
orary societies.
During the transitional academic year 1969-1970, when the University of Paris 8 was s
till
designated as the Centre Universitaire Expériment
al de Vincennes, at the poetics seminar co-
directed by Todorov and Meschonnic, present tog
ether we
re the editors of the jo
urna
l Tel Quel:
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
3
Philip Sollers, Julia Kristeva, etc. and those of
the oth
er journal Change: th
e lin
gu
ist Mitsou
Ronat, the psychoanalyst Elisabeth Roudinesco, etc., both very close to Jacques Rou
bau
d
.
Starting in May 1970, members of the Tel Quel journal stopped coming because Mesch
on
nic
violently attacked Tel Qu
el’s attachment to the celebration of C
hinese ideograms, which, for
Meschonnic, was nothing less than a return to the exclusive primacy of the signified: “Chines
e
ideograms
are the direct notation of a sig
nified”
1
, whereas all the effort of recent poetics has
focused on taking into account a significance linked to the exp
ressive p
ower of th
e signifier. As
Meschonnic wrote at the time: “Making sense is of
all language, an
effect of
significan
ce, and
not the pairing [in the Sign] of a linguistic signifier and a signified
”
2
.
For Meschonnic, at the
end of the 1970s,
it was precisely the term
"rhythm" that woul
d
bring together all the elements of "making sense: the effect of significance." It must first b
e
understood that the term "rhythm", as Meschonnic conceives it, is a holistic compound, it
cannot be reduced to its meaning in traditional poetics: physiological breat
hing, or any other
procedure of physiologic
al verbal production. Meschonnic's rhythm is not "pneumatic."
Meschonnic's rhythm is not graphically spatial eit
her; it certainly incorporates the blanks on the
line, long or short as Apollinaire imposed, but this is on
ly a secondary artifice d
esigned to
underline a profound sig
nificance of the poem: erasure,
reinforcement, waiting for meani
ng… In
short, "rhythm" is "the whole language" of the poem and therefore in Meschon
nic's p
oetic
procedure, poetic interpretation cannot be based on a limited or only a partial understand
in
g of
the verbal meaning; hence the liminal proclamation as the basis of his poe
tical understanding:
"not words,
but phr
ases." As Benveniste defi
ned it, poetics deals not with “texts” that can be
p
arsed
into a “bag of words”, but a discourse, a wh
olesome su
m.
Given these theoretical preliminaries intended to map, in their historical c
ontext, the
main as
pects of Meschonnic's theory of poetics, when the general principles of this MLA
roundtable were formula
ted, it seemed to me, at first, that the most productive approach coul
d
consist of taking a poem by Jacques Roubaud published in 1979 a
nd tra
nsl
ated into English by
Roubaud himself, "de force et"
3
in order to show, throu
gh h
is own
work of translation
, th
e
fundamental goals and responsibilities of a translator and then confront t
he result with
Meschonnic’s own views of transla
tion as outlined in his writings about poetics.
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
4
The analysis of this poetic sample by Roubaud hig
hlights, in my opinion, two main
features of the translator's work, and therefore, in this specific case, two central con
cerns of the
au
th
or:
1. As I have shown elsewhere
4
, in Roubaud's
case, prose is often considered as a means of
explaining what is expressed in his poetry in an obliqu
e, con
centrated, obtu
se, rar
efied
form.
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
5
This is the case of what we observe when
stud
yin
g in p
arallel th
e text of the poetic volume
Quelque chose noir
5
and certain passages in the “novel” Le Grand Incendie
de Londres
6
; th
e
translation into English of the poem “de force et” manifests the sam
e objective of intelligibil
ity
.
The choice of the title of the translated
poem is formally revealin
g: in French
it is mostly an
asemantic sequence of grammatical markers: “de force et”
, while in English: “grass rectify” takes
up a verbal sequence from the poem in line 2 tha
t associates a noun and a verb and therefore
allows a hint of semantic content t
o be interp
reted as in an
everyday exp
ression. A w
ork of
semantic clarification all the more astonishing for Roubaud as
it is accomplished by a
poet/poetician whose most publicly recognize
d sl
ogan is: "Poetry says what it says by saying it";
a peremptory dogmatic
statement which should discourage any attempt at
post
-opera
tive
intellectual elucid
ation
of poetic ind
ir
ect significance.
2. The title of this
segment in the Englis
h text hig
hlights the term rectify and therefore
immediately connotes the activist slogan by Ezra Pound's for
poetry: rectification of terms. A call
to arms
so dear to contemporary modernist poets: no way we a
re going to be lost in the words
of others, one real poet must find the right word,
one must invent a si
ngul
ar lang
uage.
More specifically for this
Roubaud’s poem
: this is
its very significance, its very rhythm :
the poem begins with an excuse: "'it's my vocabulary that did
th
is to me'" an
d
end
s with a final
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
6
limiting injunction: "nothing else"; between the first line which introdu
ces th
e term
"vocabulary", there
is no other direct reference
to
the abstract act of writi
ng except through the
connotative p
resen
ce of thematic syllepsis: page [leaves = feuille], line [ligne], volume. However,
as in tra
ditional poetics, these concrete terms function as figurative shifters. Therefore, the
main poetic theme instructing the poet to rectify the banal common use of lan
gu
age by
installing a sing
ular unaffected discourse is advocated through the traditional means of
metaphoric analogies: straightening the lawn to erase the repeated passag
e of feet, reddening
of the leaves to put an end to the uniformity of silence, etc. The "effect of significance" of
the
poem is only “elucidated” by the paraphrase of the figu
rative. The con
ceptu
al sign
ifican
ce of
the
text which should apply to the real world (finding
one's voice in the face of a world marked by
the uniformity or silence of the purpose) can only be understood
by the r
ead
er in an
in
direct
way
, and only by these readers who allow themselves to go beyond the literal meaning
con
veyed by the concreteness of the elements put forward: leaves, wind, bricks, bump, snow...
This study, based on a close reading of a text, was to l
ead to a com
parativ
e consideration
in order to show, through the work of a self
-edited translation, how, despite fairly close
theoretical origins, the poetic theories of Jacques Roubaud and Henri Mes
chonnic became
irreconcilable and how their common poetic work at the University of Pari
s-8 resulted, throug
h
time, in a polemical debate marked, often, by a mutually destructive violence unju
stifiably
exacerbated by the social netw
orks of the time. To offer a sign
ificant marker of th
is op
en
pu
blic
p
olemic
7
:
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
7
As I had proposed in my article "The Image and the For
mula"
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/1772564?origin=cr
ossref)
to disting
uish the differences between Meschonnic and Bonnefoy, direct comparisons of texts
between two poetic practices often reveal extremely productive and significant differ
en
ces.
Nevertheless, it quickly became manif
est to me that the standard format of an MLA round table
woul
d surely not be enough to exha
ust the s
ubject. I therefore decided to
stick to a o
ne-
dimensional work focused on th
e issu
es of
the tran
slation of
a poetic text by Meschonnic in
order highlight some of his main poetic dir
ectives an
d t
o satisfy the set of specific question
s
linked to the guidelines of this session.
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
8
Par
t II
My choice fell on the translation of an important poem jud
iciously offer
ed for En
glish
translation by the two organizers of this roundtable. A simple poem found p
age 15 of
th
e
volume Dans nos recommencements, publis
hed in Paris by Gallimard in the collection “Le
Chemin”
(1976).
Chez nous l’arbre choisit aussi l’ois
eau
l’eau ressemble au
poisson
je déborde tous les comme.
An earlier translation proposed by Gaby Bedetti and Don Boes rea
ds as foll
ows:
At our house, the tree also chooses
the bird
the water resembles
the fish
I spill over with
comparison
s.
If, taking advantage of the AI systems commonly a
vailable on the internet, we propose the text
of the origi
nal poem for English translation, we obtain:
In our country, the tree a
lso chooses
the bird.
the water resembles
the fish
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
9
I overflow all t
he likes.
Microsoft Copilot did not
like the wording of the first line and proposed:
In our country, the tree s
elects the birds
With this added note: “AI-generated content may be i
ncorrect.”
In this instance, “Artificial Intelligence” means
tha
t the data based on a considerable
previous accumulation of similar linguistic structures available through th
e collection of samp
les
dictates to this v
erbal system makes it more likely that a plural form be reestablished here,
"birds", rather than the singular "bird.” It means that somehow the lin
gu
istic p
arsin
g involved
perceives the presence of an extralinguistic incons
istency
. Probably some s
emantic
improbability (the substantive “tree” does not syntactically prohibit a subst
antive complement
that can be in the plural form), th
at can
be bland
ly glossed
over in terms of
“world knowled
ge”
by the fact that everyone knows that a tree is the refuge of a myriad of birds, not j
ust one bird.
What this morphological correction from the singular form to the plural, s
uggested by an AI
corrector reveals, is, however, the signal of a deeper stylistical disrup
tion: the underlying
presence of the figurative stylistic con
stru
ction of a "synecdoch
e", the part for th
e wh
ole.
Belonging to the category of trope
defi
ned as metonymy, this figure of displacement,
conditioned by syntax and morphology, ensures a particulariz
in
g semantic role. It allows for a
sort of shortcut in thought and for realities to be accounted for in a more striking an
d
precise
way. From th
is point of
view, th
e choice of th
e followin
g verb, "selects", appears as a mor
e
specific d
en
otative reinforcement than
th
e
verb
"ch
ooses".
"Chez nous"
is translated as "at our house" in the Bedetti and Boes
translation and as "in
our country" in the digital translation. Dependi
ng on the context, "chez nous" can i
ndeed have
this meaning: "Venez diner chez nou
s jeudi soir" implies "at ou
r h
ome," but "Ch
ez
nou
s on
n’accepte pas les dollars " refers to the entire country. But the expression "chez nous" can
also
have a synecdoche value, and therefore a particul
arizing
effect, which can be clearly interpreted
in the translation to avoid, precisely, an overly reductive meaning. Theref
ore, we must seek to
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
1
0
reestablish the collective meaning of "nous"
in the original text: "for us," or, to respect the
connotative value of location, "in our world." Final
ly, it is worth noting
that the Microsoft
Copilo
t version chooses to completely ignore the adverb "also." Given th
e immobility of
th
e tree
and the mobility of the bird, Meschonnic's introduction of "also" likely rei
nforced the idea that
the encounter is the result of mutual will and not simply the initiative of the bird, which
has th
e
mobility. Without accentuating this dimension of eq
u
ality in ch
oice in th
e En
glish version
, the
p
resence of
"also" seems effectively u
nnecessary.
These considerations about reciprocity lead
me to prop
ose the followin
g translation
of
th
e first
lin
e:
In our world, it is also for the tree to select the bir
d.
The second line appears to present no ambiguity or di
fficulty in tra
nslation:
the water resembles
the fish.
What is immediately striking in the translation of th
e th
ird
line is the fact that th
e
original French puts the l
ast word "comme"
in the singular while the two English translations
install terms in the plural: "comparisons", "likes". Obviously, it is possible th
at Mesch
on
n
ic
simply respected the morphological nature of "comme": as a conjun
ction, the term is invariable,
so he could not add an "s" t
o "comme". On th
e other h
and
, in English the word "like" can
function as a conjunction, a verb, an adjective, a noun, etc. and it is therefore not surprising to
see it end with a plural marker in the d
igital translation: "likes". By simply takin
g th
e eq
uivalent
of the
French "comm
e", the digital tra
nslation is more literal tha
n the version put forward by
Bedetti and Boes. Furthermore, the use of the term "comp
arison
" in the Bed
etti an
d Boes
translation already constitutes a complete restitution of the "effect of significan
ce" of this sh
ort
poem by Meschonnic. The purpose of this poem is not to introdu
ce th
e reader to a clich
éic
"paysage choisi" of the surrounding
countryside, with tree, bird, river, fish, but, more
fundamentally, its purpose is to assert a central poetic prin
ciple at the heart of Mesch
onn
ic's
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
1
1
practice: avoiding metaphor, an analogical trope which, with a semantic disp
lacement,
establishes a false similitude between two elements subjectively chosen by the author; b
ecause
of this arbitrary rapprochement they impose themselves as related in this p
airin
g. But, for
Meschonnic the relevanc
y of this
analogy
is only a manufactured effect of reality whose validity
remains exclusively in the make-believe domain of
literary aesthetic impression
ism. Because
this literary relationship can only function in the l
imited context of esthetic value,
it is unabl
e to
allow a text to acquire
any political value,
in the sense that Meschonnic understands
it, that is to
say, to impose an effect of signi
ficance in di
rect contact with everyday life reality.
However, on this third line, in the English translations, the use of the plural
terms
"comparisons", "likes" r
esu
lt in th
e erasu
re of the figurative structur
e of the synecdoche present
in the original French poem: "les comme". In the English
versions it is no lon
ger "the part for th
e
whole" which is
put forward, but directly the whole. For the first line the AI search engi
ne
directly posed the question of the possible necess
ity of the plural ("birds" instead of the
singular "bird"). Here, because Meschonnic choos
es, as is often the case with him, to substitute
to a term marked by semantic concreteness an unmarked grammatical word, he imp
oses at the
same time the syntactic use of a figure of
synecdoch
e. Stylistically, or in
his critical vocabu
lary,
“rhythmically
”, this figure has the advantage of imposing a shortcut of thou
ght and
of
accounting for a reality in a more striking or assertive way since synec
doc
he is always a syntactic
or morphological phenomenon involving a reduction of terms. "I drink an excellent Bordeaux" is
a linguistic economy for what should be: "I drink an excellent wine produced in
the Bord
eau
x
region." In our present case, we could therefore restore a comp
lete exp
ression of
the typ
e "I
outstrip all the constructions of comparison built on the use of the con
junction
'like'."
The direct restitution of the erased term "comparison" in Bedetti and Boes'
s translation
directly relaunc
hes the question of translation tha
t I was about to address when, in my first
project, I chose Roubaud's poem translated by its author. As
I have poi
nted out, one of the
characteristics of these translations is a desire to clarify an original text which
, by the very
nature of poetic
work, requires syntactic densification and semantic blurring. Roubaud, without
shame, often, in his own translations, clearly deliv
ers to us what cons
titutes a formal
illumination of the mysteries of his
original French text. Certainly, the work of transla
tion
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
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ranslation
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2
requires
a significant effort of interpretation of the origi
nal text in order to render
as
authentically as
possi
ble the holis
tic significance,
the “rhythm”
. But where should the
clarification of terms stop? We know Saussure's "madness" when he imposed th
e translation
of
Latin texts: ignoring the s
urface meaning of the poem and only restoring w
hat he concluded
was the deep, underlying, h
idden text.
In the case of translating Meschonnic’s poetry, I consider
that the process shoul
d
respond to a double concern: 1.
to make Meschonnic's textual production accessible to a
foreign audience, and 2. to familiarize this foreig
n audi
ence with the fundamental principles of
Meschonnic's poetics. Now, as I have indicated, it turns out that, for me, th
is poetic tercet
condens
es in a lapidary way one of the fundamental pri
nciples
of Meschonnic's poetics: poetics
is not a s
ubset of literature or philosoph
y
, poetics is not a s
ub-bra
nch of these great a
esthetic
categories, poetics must be political, it m
ust spea
k of reality as it is experi
enced;
it must not
abandon itself to the trap of metaphorical assertion, it mu
st car
efu
lly maintain
the rhythm of
human understanding of reality. It seems to me that these three lines should
be considered as a
short slogan, that the economy of the original synecdoche reinforces th
e rhyth
mic economy of
the poem a
nd therefore that the third line shoul
d be considered as the conclusion of the
d
emonstration or the final exh
ortation of
a conviction
. To reinforce th
is con
clu
sive sen
se of
th
e
poem, we can borrow from Meschonnic the principle of spatial placements that he himself
uses
in his
translation wor
ks to reinforce the cadences of “r
hythm” with bla
nk spaces.
From this perspective, in
b
oth English translations, I am not convinced by the ch
oice of
the verbs "spill over" and "overflow." Both contain a seme r
elated to the liquid element, and
I
suspect that the presence of the word "water" in the preceding line p
lays a role in
maintain
in
g
the isotopy of this semantic field. Nevertheless, since this is the imperative con
clud
in
g
sequence, I propose that
the French verb "déborde" should be understood in its imperativ
e use
in Fren
ch
, as wh
en
ever on
e wants to overcome a trou
blesome obstacle, such as wh
en
it comes
to car rage: "We're dragging!!! We're dragging! Ov
erflow/overtake this car..." To support my
argument, I suggest cons
idering the s
pecific use of the concept of “déborder” / “débordement”
in Meschonnic’s poetic t
exts.
Dédicaces proverbes, p. 7, line 15 : “J’
ai un dé
bordement du langage par…
”
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
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3
Légendaires chaque jour
, p. 14,
line 3 : “ par
-dessus
notre ombre nous débordons notre
livre nous…”
p
.
47, li
ne 3 : “ nos contours débordés par le poèm
e…”
p
.
55, line 4 : “ i
ls nous débordent ils rentrent…”
Voyageurs de la voix, p. 69, li
ne 5 : “ ce que je cherche mais dans ce qui
déborde
je
trouve mes or
igines… ”
Et
c,
In
add
ition, this cryptic dimen
sion of
the line as a con
clusive imperative
wou
ld
lead,
for
th
e
third line, to a solution such
as:
I bypass [or in
common
p
arlan
ce] I overtake every comp
arison
The i
nclusion of the pronoun “I” on this last line i
mmediately suggests, retroactively,
that, here, Meschonnic is committing a stylistic mistake that is usually heavily san
ctioned in
elementary “Expression Orale 101” F
renc
h cours
es. Students are informed that in an
autobiogra
phical text it is clumsy to absentmindedly alternate between the pronouns “nous
[we],” “on [one],” and “je [I].” However, in these three lines, the poem begins with “Ch
ez
nous,”
originally translated as “In our
world.” Since it is now understood that this is a poe
tic ensemble
with doctrinal val
ue,
rein
forcing Meschonnic’s own poetic orthodoxy, I see no maj
or drawback
in simply accepting the fact that the entire ensemble is marked by the a
ffirmation of a personal
doxa and therefore I am in favor of understandi
ng
the “our” of the first li
ne into “my” to res
tore
to the whole poetic
ensemble the masterful and s
ingular
tone of selective doctrinal exigency
that permeates the entire rhythm
of this s
hort poem:
In my w
orld
it is also for th
e tr
ee to select the bird
the water resembles
the fish
I bypass every c
omparison.
Jean Jacques
Thomas
MLA Toron
to
2026
Poetics/T
ranslation
1
4
NOT
ES
1
.
SubStance 15, 1976,
“
Entretien avec Henri
Meschonnic,” Jean Jacques T
homas, pp. 117-121.
The quote is on page 118
.
2
.
I
b
id
.
, p.
120
.
3
.
SubStance 23/24, 1979, “Poèmes/Poems,” Jac
ques Rouba
ud,
pp. 37-45. The text of this
poem
and its translation are on p
. 43.
4
.
Poetics Today, Vol.
8 3-4 (1987), “Metaphor: The Image and the Formula,” Jean Jacques
Thomas,
pp.
479-504.
5
.
Jacques Roubaud, Que
lque chose noir, Paris: Ga
llimard, 2001.
6
.
Jacques Roubaud, Le Grand Incendie de Londres
, Paris: Seuil, 1989.
7
.
Po&sie 99, 2002. “Henri Meschonnic s’auto-célèbre,” Jacques Rouba
ud,
pp. 90-100.
8
.
Four
poems
b
y
H
enr
i
Mesc
honn
ic,
translated
from
the
F
ren
ch
(France)
b
y
Gaby
Bede
tti
a
nd
Don
Boes
–
Another
Chicago
Magazine
.
Consulted
April
10
,
2025.
A
noth
er
Chicago
Ma
gaz
ine
,
November
28
,
2023.